Tunnels at Huqoq used during the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

Excavations by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) have revealed a complex of underground tunnels built by the Jewish residents of Huqoq, in central Galilee, around the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, also known as the Second Jewish Revolt (c. 132–136 CE). Huqoq’s residents used the tunnel system to escape from Roman soldiers and was built to minimize the effectiveness of the Roman soldiers’ heavy armor.

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Hiding at Huqoq

The tunnel system at Huqoq is the largest yet discovered in the Galilee from this period and sheds light on the geographic extent of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, a dramatic episode in a centuries-long conflict between Judeans and Romans that led to the destruction of the Second Temple nearly 70 years earlier. Excavations suggest the system was initially constructed during the First Jewish Revolt (c. 66–70 CE), but was dramatically expanded during later Bar Kokhba Revolt.

A small ring discovered in the Huqoq tunnels. Courtesy Dafna Gazit, IAA.

To build the system, the residents converted an existing water cistern, digging out narrow tunnels that allowed them to maneuver underneath the houses of the village above. At one point, they also broke the walls of the town’s ritual bath (mikveh) to create an additional entryway to the tunnel system. The system included eight separate hiding cavities and tunnels that were dug at 90-degree angles to slow the movement of armored Roman soldiers who might venture into the tunnels. In its excavations, the IAA also discovered broken clay and glass dishes and a ring that belonged to a woman or child.

Previous excavations at Huqoq have revealed an impressive Byzantine period (c. 324–634 CE) synagogue containing one of the best-preserved mosaics of late antique Galilee. Located near the secret tunnels, the synagogue is a testament to the resilience of the local Jewish population.

According to excavation directors Uri Berger and Yinon Shivtiel, “The hiding complex provides a glance at a tough period of the Jewish population in Huqoq and in the Galilee in general. However, the story that the site tells is also an optimistic story of an ancient Jewish town that managed to survive historical tribulations. It is a story of residents who, even after losing their freedom, and after many hard years of revolts, came out of the hiding complex, and established a thriving village, with one of the most impressive synagogues in the area.”

Aerial view of Huqoq. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

Discovered with the help of local high school students, the tunnels demonstrate that the Bar Kokhba Revolt extended well beyond the region of Judea. “It is not certain that the complex was used for hiding and escaping during the Second Revolt, but it does appear to have been prepared for this purpose,” the directors said. “We hope future excavations will bring us closer to the answer.”

This article was originally published in Bible History Daily on March 22, 2024.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Scrolls Hidden During Bar Kokhba Revolt Discovered

A New Document Dated to Four Years After the Second Jewish Revolt

Rare Bar Kokhba Revolt Coins Found

Ancient Wonders—The Huqoq Mosaics

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Jewish Revolts

Inside the Huqoq Synagogue

Roman Cult, Jewish Rebels Share Jerusalem Cave Site

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The post Bar Kokhba Tunnels in the Galilee appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

A rare coin from the Bar Kokhba Revolt. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

During archaeological survey work in a Judean Desert cave, members of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA), in cooperation with the Ministry of Heritage and the Archaeological Office of the Military Administration of Judea and Samaria, discovered four rare coins dating from the time of the Bar Kokhba Revolt. One of the coins may refer to the famous Rabbi Eleazar Hamod‘ai.

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Revolt Coins

Discovered in the Mazuq Ha-he’teqim Nature Reserve, located in the West Bank, the four coins all date to the period of the Bar Kokhba Revolt (c. 132–136 CE), also known as the Second Jewish Revolt. One of the coins bears the name “Eleazar the Priest,” written in ancient paleo-Hebrew script as opposed to the square script, which was more commonly used during the period. According to the IAA, the coin may refer to Rabbi Eleazar Hamod‘ai, who played a significant religious role at the time of the revolt and lived in Beitar, a town not far from Jerusalem, that was the headquarters of the revolt. According to the Talmud, Eleazar died in Beitar, likely when it was captured by the Romans (y. Ta‘anit 4:5).

The reverse of the Eleazar coin, imprinted with a bunch of grapes and writing. Emil Aladjem, IAA.

The four Bar Kokhba Revolt coins. Oriya Amichai, IAA.

Along with Eleazar’s name, the obverse of the coin features an engraved date palm. The reverse of the coin depicts a bunch of grapes and a second inscription reading “Year One of the Redemption of Israel.” This date indicates the coin was minted in 132 CE. The survey also found three other coins that date to the Bar Kokhba Revolt and bear the name “Simeon.”

The Second Jewish Revolt was the result of years of conflict between Jews and Romans in the province of Judea following the destruction of the Second Temple (c. 70 CE) and the construction of the Roman city of Aelia Capitolina over the ruins of Jerusalem. The rebellion was led by Simeon Bar Kokhba, who was hailed by many Jews of the time as the messiah. The Jewish army achieved many early victories, including the conquest of Aelia Capitolina. In response, Emperor Hadrian (r. 117–138 CE) came to Judea himself with six full legions to crush the revolt. It is estimated that nearly half a million Jewish soldiers were slain or enslaved and at least three Roman legions suffered heavy casualties during the fighting. Following the war, Jews were barred from entering Jerusalem.

Ed. Note: Articles on Bible History Daily may reference sites or artifacts from contested, annexed, or occupied regions, which may be subject to international laws and conventions on the protection of cultural property.

^{This post first appeared in Bible History Daily March 2024.}

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Scrolls Hidden During Bar Kokhba Revolt Discovered

Rare Coin from Bar Kokhba Revolt Discovered in Jerusalem

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Jewish Revolts

Roman Cult, Jewish Rebels Share Jerusalem Cave Site

“Revolt” Coins Minted on Temple Mount

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A Roman fortress on a cliffside across from Masada. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The first-century CE siege of Masada is one of the most famous sieges in the history of Judah. Despite this, little is actually known about the Roman siege works, with most earlier studies focusing instead on the desert fortress and the Judean defenses. Publishing in the Journal of Roman Archaeology, a team of Israeli archaeologists has shed new light on the siege works, focusing on how they were constructed, how much time it would have taken to build them, and what was their actual purpose.

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Building a Wall Around a Mountain

Consisting of an encircling wall, towers, forts, and a giant earthen ramp, the Roman siege works around Masada are an impressive feat of construction, still visible after nearly two millennia. So, how long did they actually take to construct, and why did the Roman army spend that time and effort to capture a single fortress? To get to the bottom of these questions, a team of Israeli archaeologists carried out the most extensive analysis of the siege works to date, through field surveys, excavations, and 3D mapping.

The multi-year project focused predominantly on the poorly studied encircling wall and its associated towers and forts. Made up of seven separate sections, the wall extended for over 2.5 miles, with another 1.5 miles constructed to surround the eight camps and 15 towers built along and near the wall. On average, the walls were 6.5 feet thick and around 8 feet tall, while the towers stood to a height of 11 feet. Based on these numbers, the team estimated that it would have taken the 5,000 Roman soldiers laying siege to Masada roughly two weeks to construct the siege works and several more weeks for the construction of the ramp.

Model of Masada. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

However, the team’s analysis revealed more than just how long it would have taken to build the wall; it also shed new light on the wall’s function. Although one of the main purposes of siege walls was to protect the attacking army against counterstrikes, the walls around Masada were too short to provide sufficient defense against mounted attacks from inside Masada, and they lacked parapets to protect Roman troops on top of them. Additionally, the towers were spaced too far apart to allow archers to cover the entire territory. Instead, various sections of the wall performed slightly different purposes.

The areas of the wall around the wadis and gullies of the nearby cliff, for instance, received extra protection to deter outside rebels from coming to the aid of Masada. The southern section of the wall similarly had its towers placed on convex portions of the wall, directed towards the south, to defend against additional enemies from that direction, although the wall’s lack of complexity and shortness indicates that the Romans did not expect a significant threat. Other sections of the wall, however, seem to have been intended for psychological impact, presenting the rebels inside the fortress with the mere appearance of power.

Overlooking the desert surrounding Masada. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer, BAS.

The question of why the Romans expended so much time and effort to take Masada still lacks a clear answer, however. While the siege is famous in the modern mind, it was far less important at the time, as the desert fortress housed only a few hundred rebels, and the Romans had already succeeded in conquering Jerusalem a few years earlier, in 70 CE. Nonetheless, the Romans marched to Masada in 73. While this may have been an ultimate display of force, some scholars, including Guy Stiebel, director of the current Masada excavations and the article’s co-author, believe that it was done to protect the lucrative balsam trade based around Ein Gedi a short distance from Masada.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Masada: The Dead Sea’s Desert Fortress

Masada Dig Reveals a Pleasure-Garden at King Herod’s Palace

The Masada Siege

Study Finds Romans Lacked Local Timber for Masada Siege

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Masada: History and Archaeology

Masada Shall Never Fail (to Surprise) Again

Masada—The Final Reports

Masada: Arms and the Man

The Masada Siege—From the Roman Viewpoint

Masada Dig Reveals a Pleasure-Garden at King Herod’s Palace

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Broken glass vessels from Second Temple Jerusalem. Courtesy Eliyahu Yanai, City of David.

Excavations of Jerusalem’s Second Temple drainage channel have revealed fascinating details about the last decades of the flourishing city before its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE. By uncovering the trash left behind by Jerusalem’s first-century residents, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) has been able to fill in the gaps in Jerusalem’s material and culinary culture.

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One Person’s Trash Is Another Person’s Treasure

The Second Temple channel once passed through the city’s bustling market at the foot of the Temple Mount, before making its way along the entire length of the City of David ridge. “Into the channel’s mouth were swept the detritus of the life above Jerusalem’s main street,” explains excavation director Ayala Zilberstein, “where they remained preserved between the walls just as they were at the moment of the city’s destruction.” These small finds, cast aside by their owners, now tell the story of Jerusalem. Among the finds were complete ceramic lamps, glass vessels, food remains, coins, and beads.

Intact oil lamps discovered in the drainage channel. Courtesy Eliyahu Yanai, City of David.

As the city’s drainage channels were cleaned regularly, the team can confidently date the accumulated material to the last few decades before Jerusalem’s destruction, with the upper-most levels coming from the final days of the city. In these upper levels, they discovered complete lamps, which were possibly used by people hiding from the Romans. Further down, they uncovered many whole vessels, including ceramic and glass vials and a large variety of pots and dishes, revealing the near complete tableware set of Jerusalem’s residents. “The channel assemblage is drawn from many houses, and from different streets in town,” said Zilberstein, “thus presenting us with examples of almost all wares the city’s merchants had to offer.”

A collection of finds from the Second Temple drainage channel. Courtesy Eliyahu Yanai, City of David.

In addition to standard excavation, the IAA sends all of their excavated dirt for sifting, which has revealed a great deal of additional information regarding the diet of Second Temple Jerusalem. These smaller finds include grape seeds, grain kernels, fish bones, and even eggshells.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Jerusalem’s Iron Age Moat Discovered

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Taking Out the Trash in Ancient Jerusalem

Trash Reveals Ancient Agriculture’s Secrets

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Jerusalem and the Holy Land(fill)

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Aerial view of Jerusalem’s upper aqueduct. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

During the late Second Temple period, during the time of the Herodian dynasty and Jesus of Nazareth, Jerusalem boasted one of the world’s largest and most elaborate aqueduct systems. While carrying out a salvage excavation in Jerusalem’s Givat Hamatos neighborhood, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) uncovered over 1,000 feet of the city’s upper aqueduct, the longest segment yet discovered, revealing new clues about the ancient structure.

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Water for Jerusalem

The upper aqueduct of Second Temple Jerusalem was one of two aqueducts that delivered water to the city. While the lower aqueduct delivered water to the Temple Mount, the upper aqueduct—as the name implies—brought water to the upper city, which was the area of Herod’s palace and the place where the city’s wealthiest residents lived.

Excavator cleaning up the upper aqueduct. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

“At the end of the Second Temple period, Jerusalem grew significantly: The Temple was rebuilt and the water that flowed from the Gihon Spring and the cisterns was no longer enough for the thousands of pilgrims and residents, and water had to be brought to the city from far away,” said Opher Shiyan and Rotem Cohen, co-directors of the excavation in an IAA statement. “Against this background, the Hasmoneans and King Herod built two elaborate aqueducts for Jerusalem, which were among the largest and most complex waterworks in the Land of Israel and the ancient world in general. The aqueducts concentrated spring water in the Bethlehem area and, with the help of huge pools and the force of gravity, made the water flow for tens of miles.”

Revolt coin discovered in the Jerusalem aqueduct. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA.

The upper aqueduct continued to be used even after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE and was the primary water source for the Roman city, Aelia Capitolina. The lower aqueduct, however, remained in use for far longer, even into the early 20th century.

During their excavation, the team identified three phases of the aqueduct’s use, with the earliest dating to the Second Temple period and the latest to the time of the city’s Roman occupation. The team also discovered 25 coins within the plaster that covered the aqueduct’s walls. The excavators suggest the coins were placed intentionally, perhaps as tokens for good luck, as they were found at nearly identical distances from each other.

It is still unclear whether the aqueduct system was first built by the Hasmoneans or by Herod the Great. Recent evidence suggests at least some sections were built later, possibly under the auspices of Pontius Pilate. The archaeological team hopes that the newly discovered coins can finally answer questions about the aqueduct’s origin and date.

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Jerusalem and the Holy Land(fill)

Jerusalem in David and Solomon’s Time

Jerusalem as Eden

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Roman aqueduct at Segovia. Photo: Bernard Gagnon / CC by-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons.

Through January 15, 2023
Landesmuseum
Mainz, Germany
landesmuseum-mainz.de

“What have the Romans ever done for us?” A question famously asked (and answered) in Monty Python’s The Life of Brian. As BAR readers well know, the answer is actually quite a lot. A new exhibit, titled High Tech Romans, aims to showcase the resourcefulness and originality of the Romans, as well as the lasting impact of their technologies up to the modern day.

All across Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East, the remains of great Roman-era building projects are visible testaments to the technologies that emerged and proliferated under Roman influence and rule. For example, a theater in Caesarea Maritima—first constructed by Herod the Great in the first century B.C.E—is still used for shows in Israel today. Likewise, a first-century Roman-era aqueduct in Segovia, Spain, still carries water into the city, and elements of the ancient sewer in Rome, the Cloaca Maxima—originally constructed in the sixth century B.C.E. and renovated in the third century B.C.E.—has remained in continuous use (see “Then and Now: Sanitation and Sewers”).

Roman innovations, such as underfloor heating, concrete, road networks, and advanced water systems, continue to amaze and inspire. While some of these technologies, such as concrete, were lost for centuries, others remained functional and in use after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Landesmuseum exhibit allows visitors not only to learn about Roman inventions but also to try them out for themselves with several hands-on activities, making it an exceptional experience for young and old alike.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Arch-Tech: Purple Threads from the Days of David and Solomon

Advanced Technology Shines Light on More Dead Sea Scrolls

Archaeological Technology

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How Iron Technology Changed the Ancient World and Gave the Philistines a Military Edge

Hi-Tech Archaeology: Ground-Penetrating Radar—New Technology Won’t Make the Pick and Trowel Obsolete

The Dead Sea Scrolls are considered by many to be the most significant archaeological find of the 20th century. This year, 2022, marks the 75th anniversary of their initial discovery. To commemorate the occasion, we offer a new eBook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Past, Present, and Future. It brings together articles and interviews with the world’s leading experts on the scrolls. Receive your free copy today!

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Eight miles southeast of Jerusalem sits one of the greatest architectural marvels of ancient Judea, the Herodium. Constructed by the infamous Herod the Great around 28 B.C.E., this sprawling site originally served Herod as both an administrative center and desert fortress. Before long, however, it would also become his grave.

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The Story of an Architectural Marvel

Seemingly built in the middle of nowhere, there is little that sets the area of Herodium apart from its surroundings. Instead, the reason for its construction and location was a far more personal choice by Herod. According to Josephus (Antiquities 14.352–360), Herod’s first connection to the site was in 40 B.C.E. After Mattathias Antigonus’s ascension to the throne of Judea—with the help of the Parthians—Herod fled from Jerusalem towards Masada. Mattathias pursued, and the armies of the two men met in battle along the road. Victorious, Herod quickly went to Rome where he was nominated by Marc Antony as the new Judean king. The site of the battle between Herod and Matthathias? Herodium.

Aerial view of the Herodium. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Matthew.

A decade after taking the Judean throne, Herod returned to the site of his victory and began construction on a monumental project. Consisting of a mighty fortress, surrounded by an artificially heightened mound, and a lower palace and administrative center, Herod named the site Herodium. This would be the only site that Herod named after himself.

Model of Herodium at the visitors’ center. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

In 4 B.C.E., at the age of 70, Herod fell ill with what some have suggested was age-related heart or lung failure. Before his death, however, Herod laid plans for his own funeral. According to the late archaeologist Ehud Netzer, Herod ordered extensive changes to the site with the addition of a large mausoleum on the side of the mountain fortress. As told by Josephus (War 1.659), Herod took things even further. Knowing how much he was hated, Herod ordered a group of prominent Jewish leaders to be executed upon his death to ensure mourning across the kingdom.

After his death, the site of Herodium continued to be used by Roman governors. Archaeological excavations uncovered a ring at the site that may have belonged to Pontius Pilate or one of his officials. During the First and Second Jewish Revolts, rebels occupied the site and carried out their own construction works, adding extensive tunnel systems. During one of these periods, it appears that the rebels destroyed the mausoleum that Herod had constructed for himself.

Location of Herod’s Mausoleum at Herodium. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Herod’s Palace Fortress

The main excavations at Herodium began in 1972 and continue, off and on, to this day. Predominantly excavated by the late Ehud Netzer, the site covers some 40 acres. The Herodium can be split into two separate parts: the lower palace and the upper fortress. Both sections are impressive on their own, although today only the upper fortress is open to visitors. The fortress measures 200 feet in diameter and contains two concentric walls that rise to a height of 100 feet. However, only a third of this massive structure is visible from the outside, as a large artificial mound was constructed around the fortress. Within the fortress, Herod constructed four massive towers. While three towers are semi-circular and measure 45 feet in diameter, the fourth tower is a full circle and measures 55 feet in diameter. The tower’s original height is uncertain, as its upper sections have not survived. More than just a defensive structure, however, the fortress also contained a large courtyard as well as living quarters, entertainment spaces, and a bathhouse.

View of the Herodium fortress from above. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Matthew.

The lower portions of the Herodium were constructed as a palatial resort where Herod could entertain guests. This area included many impressive architectural features including a large plastered pool. As the site is in the middle of the Judean Desert, Herod brought in water from Solomon’s Pools in Jerusalem to fill the pool and water the lush gardens planted around it.

The large pool in the lower Herodium. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Matthew.

Another intriguing feature at Herodium is the theater, which was constructed halfway up the northeast slope of the fortress. While the theater could only hold around 450 people, its most impressive feature was the royal box. The box was decorated with stucco plaster and secco painting. Along its walls were painted elaborate fake windows looking out onto scenic areas across the Roman Empire. Ehud Netzer suggested that this theater was completed for the visit of Marcus Agrippa in 15 B.C.E.

The Roman theater at Herodium. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

The final feature to mention is what Netzer identified as Herod’s mausoleum. Although completely destroyed in antiquity, the mausoleum was reconstructed as having been 30 feet by 30 feet at its base and possibly reaching 70 feet in height. The mausoleum was surrounded by columns and had a conical roof. Similar tombs, also dating to this period, are found in the area of Jerusalem. The mausoleum may also take inspiration from the famous Khazneh and Deir monuments from the Nabatean capital city of Petra, the city of Herod’s mother.

Model of Herod’s tomb at Herodium. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Matthew.

During excavations, fragments of three separate sarcophagi were uncovered. Two of these were constructed from white limestone. The third sarcophagus, however, was made of red stone and elaborately decorated with carved rosettes. While a number of the details regarding these finds are still debated, it has been suggested that the red sarcophagus belonged to Herod himself, while the two white sarcophagi were those of close family members.

Sarcophagus proposed to be Herod’s. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible, Matthew.

To learn more about Herodium, check out Ehud Netzer’s excellent article “In Search of Herod’s Tomb,” which appeared posthumously in the January/February 2011 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Herodium: The Tomb of King Herod Revisited

Monumental Entryway to King Herod’s Palace at Herodium Excavated

Effort to Recreate Herod’s Tomb Criticized

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